The Roman tavern — the caupona or taberna — was the social space of the working poor and the urban transient, serving wine, hot food, and a place to sit to the vast majority of Rome’s population who had neither the household space for entertaining nor the social standing for the formal dinner party. It was also, in the view of the Roman elite who wrote most of the surviving literature, a place of moral danger: noisy, crowded, frequented by the wrong people, associated with cheap wine, dice games, prostitution, and the general dissolution of Roman values that the upper classes perpetually feared was eroding the foundations of society. The complaints were consistent across centuries and the taverns thrived regardless, which is usually a reliable indicator of genuine social function.

The Roman theater had Greek ancestors and Roman ambitions, which meant it was grander, more permanent, and more politically charged than the tradition it inherited. Greek theaters were cut into hillsides; Roman theaters were freestanding structures built anywhere the politics and patronage required, carrying their own support in the massive substructures that allowed them to be erected on flat ground without natural topography to exploit. The technical capacity to build a freestanding theater — requiring vaulted concrete substructure at a scale that Hellenistic builders had not attempted — was itself a statement about Roman engineering ambition, and the theaters that survive from across the empire, from Orange in France to Aspendos in Turkey, demonstrate that the ambition was fulfilled consistently.

Roman law recognized that people harmed each other in ways that were not crimes but that required legal remedy, and it organized those harms into a category called delict — from delinquere, to fail or offend — that is the ancestor of what common law systems call tort. The Roman law of delict was not a unified system imposed from above but a collection of specific wrongs that had accumulated through centuries of legal development, each with its own history, elements, and remedies, organized into a coherent framework by the juristic tradition that had the intellectual ambition to see the categories whole. What the jurists built was not only practically useful to Romans seeking legal remedies but was the foundation of civil liability doctrine in legal systems that still operate today.

The bronze is Roman, from the Albani Collection, and it sits now in the Louvre’s antiquities hall on a plinth of dark marble, moving through nothing. The lion has one paw resting on a sphere — the globe, the world, the totality of things worth possessing — and the posture is neither aggressive nor relaxed. It is the posture of ownership. The sphere is already subdued. The question of whether anything else needs subduing remains open. This is not a lion that has just won. This is a lion that expects to win.

Rome and China never met. The two largest empires of the ancient world existed simultaneously — the Han dynasty and the Roman principate overlapped for roughly two centuries — and the goods they produced circulated between them across thousands of kilometers of overland and maritime routes. But no Roman diplomat reached Chang’an, and no Han envoy arrived in Rome, and what each knew of the other was filtered through so many intermediaries that the images were almost entirely mythological. Rome called China Serica, the land of silk. China called Rome Daqin, the Great Qin, imagining it as a mirror-image empire on the far western edge of the world. The distance between them was too great and the intermediary interests too profitable for direct contact to develop.

Rome has been a film subject since the beginning of cinema, and the relationship between Hollywood’s Rome and the historical record is complicated in ways that go beyond simple error-counting. Some of what cinema gets wrong is deliberate simplification for narrative clarity. Some is period convention — the sandal epics of the 1950s reflected Cold War anxieties as much as ancient history. Some is genuine incomprehension of a world sufficiently distant that even educated filmmakers cannot feel its difference. And occasionally, something unexpected gets it exactly right in ways that the filmmakers may not have consciously intended.

At Millesgården, the sculptor Carl Milles’s studio and museum on the island of Lidingö outside Stockholm, a copy of the Capitoline Wolf stands in the open air, green with patina, the two infants nursing beneath the she-wolf’s belly on a red granite plinth. Ivy climbs the wall behind it. A stone face — a garden ornament — watches from the wall above. The composition is so familiar as to have become almost invisible through repetition: the wolf alert, ears pricked, facing left with a wariness that has not relaxed in two thousand years of bronze casting; the twins below, pudgy and insistent, entirely unconcerned with the predator feeding them. The image is Rome’s founding symbol, its most exported icon, the picture that appeared on Roman coins in the second century BC and on Italian government documents in the twenty-first century AD. It has been in continuous circulation as a symbol of Roman identity for over two millennia, which is not an achievement many images can claim.

In the Greek and Roman antiquities hall of the Louvre, in a room of vaulted ceilings and warm museum light, four marble figures stand back-to-back around a central pillar and refuse to let you walk past without stopping. The group is known as the Four Captives — a Roman work, probably inspired by Hellenistic precedents, likely once decorating a monumental structure whose specific identity is lost. What survives is the message, and the message is not subtle.

The unconquered sun — Sol Invictus — was the dominant religious force in the Roman Empire during the decades immediately before Christianity became the state religion, and the competition between them was closer than the outcome suggests. Aurelian, who reunified the empire after the chaos of the third century and who is one of the more underrated figures in Roman imperial history, established Sol Invictus as the supreme deity of the Roman state in 274 AD, built a spectacular temple in Rome, and created a new priesthood — the pontifices Solis — to administer its cult. For roughly forty years, the sun god was in a position of official supremacy that Christianity would not achieve until the reign of Theodosius nearly a century later.

There is a specific category of object that exists in every tourist market in the world: the miniature Eiffel Tower, made in China, sold in Paris, possessing the shape of the original without any of its substance. It is recognizable as the thing it represents. It is not the thing. Spartacus: House of Ashur, which premiered on Starz in December 2025, is that object. It has the visual vocabulary of the original series — the slow-motion combat, the stylized blood, the ludus architecture, the Roman costumes — and it has none of what made the original worth watching. Recognizable. Not the thing.